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Cyber Insecurity Examining the Past, Defining the Future ( etc.)（Z-Library）

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Cybersecurity
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This Book deals with the multifaceted world of cybersecurity, starting with the premise that while perfection in cybersecurity may be unattainable, significant improvements can be made through understanding history and fostering innovation. Vladas Leonas shares his journey from Moscow to Australia, highlighting his academic and professional milestones. This book covers the evolution of cybersecurity from the late 1960s to the present, detailing significant events and technological advancements. The author emphasises the importance of simplicity in technology projects, citing complexity as a major hindrance to success. The book also discusses the impact of the digital revolution, using the example of a global IT outage caused by a faulty software update. Project management methodologies are explored, tracing their origins from ancient civilisations to modern techniques such as CPM and PERT. The concept of cloud computing is examined, highlighting its benefits and potential security issues. The evolution and advantages of SaaS solutions are also discussed, noting their increased adoption during the COVID-19 pandemic. The author then addresses supply chain challenges, using real-world examples to illustrate vulnerabilities. He traces the history of communication methods leading up to TCP/IP and discusses the development and importance of DNS. The differences between compliance and conformance in cybersecurity are clarified, emphasising that compliance does not equate to security. Key cybersecurity standards such as the NIST CSF and ISO/IEC 27000 series are examined. The book also covers the Essential 8, a set of cybersecurity controls developed by the Australian Signals Directorate. The convergence of OT and IoT is discussed, highlighting the cybersecurity risks associated with this integration. Emerging threats from AI and quantum computing are explored, noting their potential to both advance and threaten cybersecurity.

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Cyber Insecurity: Examining the Past, Defining the Future deals with the multifaceted world of cybersecurity, starting with the premise that while perfection in cybersecurity may be unattainable, significant improvements can be made through understanding history and fostering innovation. Vladas Leonas shares his journey from Moscow to Australia, highlighting his academic and professional milestones. This book covers the evolution of cybersecurity from the late 1960s to the present, detailing significant events and technological advancements. The author emphasises the importance of simplicity in technology projects, cit- ing complexity as a major hindrance to success. The book also discusses the impact of the digital revolution, using the example of a global IT outage caused by a faulty software update. Project management methodologies are explored, tracing their origins from ancient civilisations to modern techniques such as CPM and PERT. The concept of cloud computing is examined, highlighting its benefits and potential security issues. The evolution and advantages of SaaS solutions are also discussed, noting their increased adoption during the COVID- 19 pandemic. The author then addresses supply chain challenges, using real- world examples to illustrate vulnerabilities. He traces the history of communica- tion methods leading up to TCP/IP and discusses the development and importance of DNS. The differences between compliance and conformance in cybersecurity are clarified, emphasising that compliance does not equate to security. Key cybersecurity standards such as the NIST CSF and ISO/IEC 27000 series are examined. The book also covers the Essential 8, a set of cyberse- curity controls developed by the Australian Signals Directorate. The conver- gence of OT and IoT is discussed, highlighting the cybersecurity risks associated with this integration. Emerging threats from AI and quantum computing are explored, noting their potential to both advance and threaten cybersecurity. The evolving legal landscape of cybersecurity is also covered, emphasising the need for international cooperation and innovative legal solutions. In conclusion, the book stresses the importance of critical thinking and a holistic approach to cybersecurity, advocating for simplicity and founda- tional practices to enhance security. Cyber Insecurity
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Security, Audit and Leadership Series Series Editor: Dan Swanson, Dan Swanson and Associates, Ltd., Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada The Security, Audit and Leadership Series publishes leading-edge books on critical subjects facing security and audit executives as well as business leaders. Key topics addressed include leadership, cybersecurity, security leadership, privacy, strategic risk management, auditing it, audit management and leadership. Team Intelligence: A New Method Using Swarm Intelligence for Building Successful Teams Mohammad Nozari The Gardener of Governance: A Call to Action for Effective Internal Auditing Rainer Lenz and Barrie Enslin Navigating the Cyber Maze: Insights and Humor on the Digital Frontier Matthias Muhlert Safeguarding the Future: Security and Privacy by Design for AI, Metaverse, Blockchain, and Beyond Alan Tang Security Relationship Management: Leveraging Marketing Concepts to Advance a Cybersecurity Program Lee Parrish A Cybersecurity Leader’s Journey: Speaking the Language of the Board Edward Marchewka Cyber Risk Management in Practice: A Guide to Real-World Solutions Carlos Morales Cyber Insecurity: Examining the Past, Defining the Future Vladas Leonas For more information about this series, please visit: https:// www. routledge. com/ Security- Audit- and- Leadership- Series/ book- series/ CRCINTAUDITA
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Cyber Insecurity Examining the Past, Defining the Future Vladas Leonas With Contribution from Sorin Toma
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Designed cover image: Shutterstock First edition published 2025 by CRC Press 2385 NW Executive Center Drive, Suite 320, Boca Raton FL 33431 and by CRC Press 4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, LLC © 2025 Vladas Leonas Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copy- right holders if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained. If any copy- right material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint. Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without written permis- sion from the publishers. For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, access www. copyright. com or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400. For works that are not available on CCC please contact mpkbookspermissions@tandf.co.uk Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trade- marks and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. ISBN: 978-1-032-67256-4 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-032-67257-1 (pbk) ISBN: 978-1-032-67260-1 (ebk) DOI: 10.1201/9781032672601 Typeset in Sabon by SPi Technologies India Pvt Ltd (Straive)
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To My Parents
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vii Contents Foreword x Preface xii Acknowledgements xiii Author xiv 1 The beginnings 1 2 Cybersecurity or cyber security? 10 3 History of computing (von Neumann architecture) 21 Early history 21 Computer architectures 27 Compilers and interpreters 34 Conclusion and takeaways 35 4 Complexity is your enemy 36 5 Digital revolution and its consequences 46 6 Project management methodologies 55 7 Head in the Cloud 78 8 SaaS solutions 92 9 Understanding supply chain challenges 106
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viii Contents 10 Before TCP/IP: From switching circuits to switching packets 121 11 TCP/IP 142 12 DNS and BGP 176 13 Compliance, conformance and security 209 14 Standards 216 15 Essential 8 Myth 225 16 OT and IoT 236 Critical National Infrastructure (CNI) 241 United States 243 United Kingdom 244 European Union 244 Canada 245 Japan 245 Global trends 246 The nation state actors threat or cyber war 246 Hacktivism – The intersection of technology, hacking and activism 250 Key vulnerability – SCADA use of TCP/IP 254 OT security – Clear and present danger 257 Economic reality for OT Cybersecurity 258 Cybersecurity standards and frameworks for OT 258 The Purdue Model – A framework for industrial control systems 258 NERC in USA 260 ISO/IEC 62443 and ISA 99 260 NIST Guide to OT Security, NIST CSF, NIST 800-53 and sub-standards 260 AESCSF 261 The future of OT cybersecurity 261 Cyber Informed Engineering (CIE) – A new approach 261 Latest development in OT – Coming to your car? 264
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Contents ix 17 Tyranny of KPIs (and OKRs) 273 18 Emerging threats – AI 283 Ancient history 283 Classic AI history 287 AI renaissance 297 AI and LLM revolution 301 Problems and risks 311 19 Emerging threats: Quantum computers and quantum computing 325 20 Evolving legal landscape 338 Laws governing cybersecurity in the United States and Europe 342 The cybersecurity legal landscape in Australia 345 Unworkable and unenforceable legislation 349 Personal liability for directors and officers 350 Conclusion 353
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x Foreword It is my privilege to have met and known Professor Vladas Leonas now for over five years. During that time, I have come to regard him as not only an exceptionally knowledgeable and technical expert, but also a pragmatic thinker who sees and cuts through the fog of cyberwar and the often self- imposed blind spots that cloud the cyber realm. His deep understanding of the complexities within digital security is matched by his clarity of vision and ability to address these issues head- on. It was a pleasure to have Vladas critique my books, and I am honoured to contribute, in my own small way, to this exceptional work and to write its foreword. In this book, Vladas delves into the intricate evolution of the digital world – charting its growth from a tool for academic collaboration to a colossal industry processing and transacting trillions of dollars. Throughout this transformation, the infrastructure has often been built on questionable and insecure foundations as the rush for commercialism and functionality was, and is, the main driver by a country mile. Security played, and continues to play the poor cousin, if played at all. Today, technologies like IoT, AI, Blockchain and even Quantum Computing, which promise to revolutionize computing, are frequently deployed without basic security principles or capabilities in place. The result? A landscape where cybercrime has surged to the scale of a global economic superpower, generating over $10 trillion annually, effectively positioning itself as the third- largest “economy” in the world. Organised cybercrime continues to outpace a disjointed cyber security defence and response – a situation compounded by the very own goals of the digital world. Vladas does not shy away from discussing how unchecked digital domi- nance, surveillance tactics and the convenient labels of “conspiracy theorist” were introduced by intelligence agencies to obscure and perpetuate these issues. I deeply thank Vladas for his dedication, knowledge, conviction and courage in authoring this magnificent book. His unwavering commitment to
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Foreword xi “Fight the Good Fight” serves as an inspiration, even as governments too often collude in the very activities they claim to combat. This excellent publication by Professor Leonas serves as a chronology and deep insight into the often misunderstood stages and intricacies of comput- ing and their connectiveness to the Internet. It is a book you will want to read twice, or at least parts to truly appreciate and understand its depth (I always mark mine with a marker pen for reference). That is testimony to the book’s incredible granularity and comprehensiveness. This book should be part of all Cyber Security Academia Curriculum and for anyone and every- one interested in history and computing. It is my privilege to commend this work and to applaud my friend, Vladas, for his continued efforts for his unwavering efforts to make the digital world a safer place. Andy Jenkinson CEO of Cybersec Innovation Partners
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xii Preface After the Bay of Pigs fiasco, John F. Kennedy famously noted, “Success has many fathers, but failure is an orphan.” It seems this quote was originally from Tacitus, which in Latin has a slightly different tone: “This is an unfair thing about war: victory is claimed by all, failure to one alone.” This book is clear evidence of the fact that this saying, though it sounds great, is often not true. Recent chain of disastrous events in cybersecurity is impossible to attri- bute to a single particular failure. It is (as it often happens with disasters) a result of a chain of seemingly unrelated events, each of which separately may look relatively innocent, but their cumulative effect is fascinating and is a clear illustration of the adage attributed to Aristotle: “The whole is greater than the sum of the parts.” Step by step this book paints a picture of multiple, unrelated from the first glance, events that led us to the current appalling state of where cybersecu- rity is today. We go into reasonable detail describing historical perspectives that have contributed to the current state. For each and every stream dis- cussed in this book, decision(s) made at the time have been made with the best intentions, but as we look back, we can see where combined effect of these decisions brought us to. Those who may start wondering why do we need to go back in time, should read this short, but very educational essay: “4 feet 8.5 inches, The Space Shuttle and a Horse’s Ass” ( https:// www. linkedin. com/ pulse/ 4- feet- 85- inches- space- shuttle- horses- ass- william- batch- batchelder#:~: text= Space% 20Shuttle% 20Solid% 20Rocket% 20Boosters, 4% 20feet% 208. 5% 20inches% 20wide). The author expects that a number of rocks will be thrown into him by zealots of every stream discussed. And that’s okay. Debate is useful and expected. Let’s have these debates. “The road to hell is paved with good intentions,” St. Bernard of Clairvaux allegedly wrote c. 1150. And it looks like this is still true.
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xiii Acknowledgements Special thanks go to Sorin Toma who has contributed Chapters 15 and 16 and kindly written Chapter 20. And a special “Thank You” goes to Andy Jenkinson, CEO of Cybersec Innovation Partners, for his ongoing support, insightful comments and for kindly writing a foreword to this book. This book would not have happened without advice, comments, support and help from: Alex Ezrakhovich, MD of AEConformity Mike Gruntman, Professor of Astronautics at USC Steve Novis, former colleague and friend Jim Hegarty, former colleague and friend Sergei Karelov, former Interquadro colleague
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xiv Author Vladas Leonas has over 45 years of experience in ICT and cybersecurity, which includes a variety of public and private sector industries as well as ter- tiary education organisations. He is also a member of the Commonwealth and NSW Governments ICT Assurance Panels and a formally trained audi- tor (ISO 9001 and ISO27001). Over the last seven years, Vladas consulted a number of organisations, including UNSW, icare (NSW State Workers Compensation Insurance Company) and a variety of NSW Government Departments. He is also the author of 50+ publications and an interna- tionally recognised speaker. He is an Adjunct Professor at the Australian Graduate School of Leadership and a Principal Supervisor of four doctoral students. He is a subject matter expert and specialises in ICT strategies, their implementation and ICT operations, gateway reviews and internal audits, enterprise risk management, cybersecurity, governance, procurement and compliance. Over the last 25 years, Dr Leonas has held eight CIO and CTO positions. He earned a doctoral degree at the Moscow Aviation Institute and a GAICD from AICD via AGSM in Sydney. He is a Fellow of the Australian Computer Society and a Fellow of the Institute of Engineers Australia.
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1DOI: 10.1201/9781032672601-1 Chapter 1 The beginnings I was born in Moscow in 1956, the year when Nikita Khrushchev denounced Stalin’s personality cult in his famous report at the XX Congress of the Communist Party (CPSU) of the USSR. Five years later, Nikita Khrushchev declared from the podium of the XXII Congress of the CPSU: “The Party solemnly proclaims: the present generation of Soviet people will live under the communism.” When on September 1, 1963, I started school, Nikita Khrushchev was still at the helm of the USSR. The very first thing I noticed in the foyer was the poster stating: “The Party solemnly proclaims: the current generation of Soviet people will live under communism!” Image of this poster can be seen at: https://mizugadro.mydns.jp/t/index.php/File:PriKommunizme.jpg. Like many Soviet kids, I was sent to a kindergarten that I did not mind, apart from the food – they used to put a spoon of fish oil in the soup and it was absolutely unpalatable! They also demanded that kids should eat meals in full, otherwise kids were threatened that whatever was left on a plate would be deposed under their collars…. Those days kids – boys and girls – were wearing stockings on a suspender belt attached around the chest… I have lived with my Parents and my Maternal Grandmother in a one- bedroom (in the USSR it was called two-room) apartment in an apartment block on Kutuzovskiy Prospekt, Moscow. The 9-story building was known as “House of Toys” as the ground floor was fully occupied by a toy store. Image of this can be seen at: https://pastvu.com/p/2155755. School No. 5 was a privileged one with extensive English studies (1 h a day each day of the week, starting from year two and later on with lessons in English Literature). I was lucky that I was in this school’s catchment as it was literally next door to the block of units we lived in at the time. There were two classes in each year – class A and class B. I landed in class B. Just to give the reader a feeling of who else went to this school – in class A of my year was a granddaughter of Mikhail Suslov (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikhail_ Suslov), the Second Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union
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2 Cyber Insecurity from 1965 and the unofficial chief ideologue of the party – and the younger son, Arthur, of the famous Soviet illusionist Arutyun Akopyan (https:// ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BF%D1%8F% D0%BD,_%D0%90%D1%80%D1%83%D1%82%D1%8E%D0% BD_%D0%90%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%8F%D0%BA%D0%BE% D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87); Brezhnev’s granddaughter Viktoria was also studying at this school – she was 4 years older than me and was selling (cheaply 😊) at school Philip Morris cigarettes, probably pinched from her Parent’s or Grandparents’ drawer. My mother was an architect and my father was a physicist, and like many boys, I wanted to be like my father – a physicist. At that time in the USSR one had to study for 10 years to be eligible to start tertiary education and to enter into a university course (8 years to continue with secondary vocational education). So, after 8 years at this privileged school, I sat an exam resulting in me being admitted to a special Physics and Mathematics class at another school, No. 710 (also known as “ school-laboratory No. 1 at the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the USSR”). Director of the school was Vadim Konstantinovich Zhudov and now this school is named after him (https://smapse.com/ gymnasium-no710-named-after-zhudova-moscow/). Image of the school can be seen at: https://pastvu.com/_p/d/2/f/t/2ft6r1srkj8k0xskxt.jpg. After successfully graduating from this school (in 1973) and attending “The Evening Mathematical School” and having had an additional math tutor, I was eager to become a student of the Physical Faculty of the Moscow State University. The way it worked in the USSR, one had to get sufficient marks in four exams (two written – Mathematics and Composition and two oral – Physics and Mathematics) plus an average mark for the school pro- gram. Competition was pretty stiff – 20 candidates for each spot and I have ended with 0.5 mark short to get in. Moscow State University (as well as Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology) had entry exams in July, while all other universities in August. I had to get into a university that same year, otherwise I would be poten- tially (and most likely!) conscripted for 2 years’ service in the Soviet Army. Together with my parents we looked at the options and decided that I should try Applied Mathematics Faculty at the Moscow Aviation Institute. Image of one of the entrances to the Moscow Aviation Institute and the main administration building can be seen at: https://yandex.com/maps/org/ moscow_aviation_institute/1110161245/gallery/?ll=37.502489%2C55.8 11713&photos%5Bbusiness%5D=1110161245&photos%5Bid%5D=urn %3Ayandex%3Asprav%3Aphoto%3A167436098&z=5. Faculty of Applied Mathematics there had the closest curriculum to the Physics Faculty of the Moscow State University, which allowed me to attempt transfer after year one. I could use my marks from the earlier exams at the Moscow State University (there was very high probability that this will be enough to get in
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The beginnings 3 as competition was much lower – around seven candidates for each spot), but I decided to sit the exams again and subsequently was admitted as a full-time student. I also started working part time at one of the Experimental Physics labs within the Aviation Engines Faculty. Everything was new and unusual, I have learned a lot of new terms, which was exciting. But the work itself was boring – I had to measure the length of various experimental curves and graphs using curvimeter (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opisometer). Having said this, this job gave me an opportunity to make a presentation at a student conference, which was my first exposure to attending and present- ing at a conference. After finishing year one, I realised that my ideas about Physics were too idealistic and that I probably didn’t want to proceed in this direction. What I realised was that I was interested in Programming. We had a course that required us to write a program for M20 computer – a 45-bit word computer with only 4KWords of memory (https://www.computer-museum.ru/english/ m220.htm) and this was a fascinating experience for me that determined my future career. Image of M20 computer can be seen at: https://it.wikireading. ru/61638. I married early at the tender age of 19, the same year my daughter Katia was born. This put some financial pressure on me – I had to support the family. My scholarship was 40 roubles per month, while average salary was 120 roubles per month (1 rouble = 100 kopeks). So, my part-time work was giving me another 40 roubles per month, bringing the total income to 80 roubles per month. Just some stats on the cost of living: communal pay- ments for the apartment – about 14–15 roubles per month; electricity, 4 kopeks for 1 KW-h; bus or metro ride – 5 kopeks; tram ride – 3 kopeks; a box of matches – 1 kopek; loaf of rye bread – 14 kopeks; the most expensive loaf of white bread – 28 kopeks; butter – 3.6 roubles per kilo; the most expensive cheese – 3.9 roubles per kilo; ten eggs – between 0.9 and 1.3 roubles. You’ve got a feeling, I hope. So, when I heard in 1975 that one of the guys from my year (there were 125 students in my year divided into 5 groups) started working as an operator on one of the institutes’ modern computers (M20 was not considered modern), I decided that I want to do the same. As a result, I started as a night shift opera- tor on an M4030 mainframe computer (https://www.atariarchives.org/bcc2/ showpage.php?page=12). Image of M4030 mainframe computer (1973) can be seen at: https://www.computer-museum.ru/articles/universalnie_evm/987/. This mainframe computer had an interesting history. M4030 was a Soviet copy of Siemens System 4004, which was essentially a rebadged RCA Spectra 70, designed to be partially compatible with the successful IBM System/360 (https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siemens_System_4004), but used a different operating system (OS); it was featured in a couple of movies, including Willy Wonka and the Chocolate Factory in 1971). (https://www.starringthe computer.com/computer.html?c=160).
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4 Cyber Insecurity The one I worked on had 128 KB of ferrite RAM (4 × massive “fridges”), five hard drives (7.25 MB each), five tape drives, a drum printer, a card reader and a couple of other devices. Normally, operators used to run one job at a time. I developed a technique to load multiple decks on a tape and then run two to three jobs in parallel – this increased productivity by a factor of 2 to 3…. I also learned how to manually cut out holes in punched cards and how to “close” them with small punched-out rectangular pieces of cards…. After I mastered controlling and running M4030, I was lucky to become an IT person (still being a full-time student) at the small Laboratory of Memory Systems Bionics at one of the research institutes of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR where I had to run and write software for a rare for the USSR beast – HP-21MX (https://www.hpmuseum.net/exhibit.php?class= 3&cat=33). Image of HP21MX computer can be seen at: https://www. hpmuseum.net/exhibit.php?class=3&cat=33 (Figure 1.1). During this time, I also got exposure to my first time-sharing computer HP-3000 (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HP_3000) and this was an eye- opener after playing with batch mode and single-user mini-computer! Image of HP-3000 computer can be seen at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HP_ 3000#/media/File:HP_3000_Series_III.jpg. I also diversified my experience starting as a fireman at the Moscow Drama Theatre named after K. S. Stanislavskiy, where my best schoolmate’s Figure 1.1 Author behind the console of M4030 computer, 1975. Source: author’s archive.
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The beginnings 5 father was a director. Image of the theatre can be seen at: https://izi.travel/ ru/browse/eb8ac480-3269-468c-ba16-c225aa964284. Each fireman shift consisted of two people who were supposed to stay on the shift for 24 h, then 3 days of rest. Duties included: opening the theatre in the morning, hourly patrols, locking the theatre up for the night. Of course, this rule has never been followed – one person stayed there during the day, and the other stayed during the night. I always worked night shifts and this paid me 90 roubles per month! I loved to work on public holidays as this was double pay! There were no Bachelor’s or Master’s degrees in the USSR – there was a single degree and it used to take 5.5–6 years for STEM degrees and 4–5 years for arts degrees. For STEM degrees, depending upon their nature, one either had to do a project or had to write a thesis. My thesis was devoted to a developed by me virtual memory system for HP-21MX. Now, a little bit about security 😊. Moscow Aviation Institute was a so- called “closed facility,” like all military–industrial facilities. One could not get in without a pass. The Institute was located next to metro station Sokol through which the vast majority of its 30,000+ full-time students were com- ing. The pass to the university was usually shrink-wrapped in plastic to preserve it and students usually put their monthly travel ticket (6 roubles for unlimited travel on all transportation modes) inside the plastic. Guards were usually retired people who did not pay a lot of attention to passes – it was almost always possible to get in showing your travel ticket (as well as to get into the metro showing your university pass). Security was a bit more stringent on the second territory, where M4030 data centre and Military Kathedra were located. We were all trained to do something with ballistic missiles. This required the lowest level of security clearance. I was trained to aim a so-called “article 8K84” or UR100 or SS-11 Sego in NATO nomenclature (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UR-100). Security was quite tight – nothing (apart from pens) was allowed in the class; notebooks had numbered pages and were sawn; they were stored in a security room in a sealed suitcase that at the beginning of the class was brought in and taken back to security room at the end of the day. One day a week of military training was followed by a month in Military Camps at Ostrov-3 near Pskov (https://rvsn.info/training/uc_047_35600_36700.html), where we were stationed in a “tiny” bedroom that accommodated 500 stu- dents on two-level banks, after which I was commissioned as a second lieutenant. Image of the article 8K84 (or UR-100) ICBM, known to the west as the SS-11 Sego, can be seen at: https://pioneer-club.at.ua/publ/ strategicheskij_raketnyj_kompleks_ur_100_s_raketoj_8k84/10-1-0-61. Applied Mathematics Faculty’s program was designed for 5 .5 years – 2 years of exactly the same curriculum for everyone, then for the next 3 years students could choose one of five specialisations, then 6 months to write a thesis. I chose “Systems Programming” and focused on OS. For whatever
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